Lesson Eight: Haggai and Zechariah 1-8

EXILE IN BABYLON 597 to 538

The theme of this period was a struggle to understand what was essential to their faith.

Ezekiel

Torah (first five books put together largely as we have them now)

Many think most of Job written during this period

Most scholars think Isaiah 40-55 written during this period

 

POST-EXILIC PERIOD WITH PERSIA AS THE DOMINANT WORLD POWER

Cambyses (530-522) One could read Ezra 1-4 at this point.

Darius 1 Hystaspes (522--486) One could read Ezra 4:24-6:22 at this point.

Most scholars think that Isaiah 56-66 were written at this time.

 

8  Haggai (August 29, 520 to December 18, 520, 2 Chapters) and

Haggai prophesied from August 29, 520 BC to December 18, 520 BC. Zechariah (name means “The Lord has remembered”) 1-8 represents prophecies from February 15, 519 to December 7, 518.

            Darius I (the Great) ruled the Persian Empire from 522 to 486 B.C., strengthening and enlarging its administrative infrastructure that his more military minded predecessors, Cyrus and Cambyses, had neglected. Although the biblical references to his support for the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple may glow more than the historical reality behind them, it would not have been entirely out of character for Darius to support the restoration of the civic, religious and social institutions that gave meaning — and contentment — to the client populations of the Persian Empire. Antiquity knew Darius for having supported, for example, the reorganization of scribal schools in Egypt, which was part of his empire’s vast reach.

Soon after the decree of Cyrus, which allowed not only for the return of the Jewish exiles to their homeland, but which also ordered, according to biblical tradition, the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple (Ezra 4:3), work began under Sheshbazzar to rebuild the physical structure and restore the worship of Yahweh in it. The effort languished, however, apparently from a number of causes — natural hardships, lack of enthusiasm, active opposition from rival religious and political factions — until the prophet Haggai, as part of the second generation of returning exiles, injected new life into the endeavor.

Klaus Koch[1] will say that Haggai and Zechariah usher in the post-exilic age. He disagrees with the judgment of many scholars that they are narrow-minded, political nationalists, exclusive, and focus on the absolutism of the law that leads to righteousness by works. Yet, as Elizabeth Achtemeier points out, we hear a strange message here, since many prophets had been critical of worship in the temple. We do not know what to do with either prophet. The pre-exilic prophets (those who preached before the exile and while Solomon’s temple was still standing) also cherished God’s house. Nevertheless, they chided the people for relying too much on temple attendance and on the religious rituals practiced there — including animal sacrifices, tithing and festivals — while ignoring the weightier matters of justice and mercy. Jeremiah, for example, warned the people, “Amend your ways and your doings ... Do not trust in these deceptive words: ‘This is the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord”(Jeremiah 7:3-4). Haggai, on the other hand, urges the people to get serious about rebuilding the temple.

The intellectual world of Haggai depends on the priestly dichotomy between a holy world and an unclean world. They encouraged the people to rebuild the temple, concluding that project in 515 BC. Political realities had changed so that they could do this, but they make no mention of this, for their focus is on the authority of the Lord. In the opinion of some, they do so out of their desire to restore the symbol of their national pride. However, this accomplishment did not have the result these prophets had hoped. Rogern N. Carstensen (Interpreter’s Bible) notes that the people experienced hardship because of disease in crops. The prophets suggested this would continue as long as there was no visible symbol of the presence of God. Their messages culminate in the approaching coming of the Lord and the imminent establishment of the reign of God that they closely connect to the rebuilding of the temple. The point was that while the temple is in ruins, the people lived in their own homes. The message is close to saying that with Zerubbabel as a world-wide ruler and Joshua as high priest, all they need to do is rebuild the temple, and they would set in motion end-time events. In other words, Haggai and Zechariah name the coming anointed one. He would defeat the powers of the world through the spirit of the Lord rather than military might. Of course, Zerubbabel did not become the worldwide king that they expected. Von Rad[2] suggests the establishment of the kingdom must await the rebuilding of the Temple.  Koch will say that in viewing essential eschatological saving figures as people they know, they go beyond all previous prophecy. Of course, one could say that 500 years later, some Jewish people would proclaim another person, Jesus of Nazareth, as that figure. Haggai rejects Samarian help in rebuilding the Temple.  He also envisions an imminent time when all nations shall worship the Lord.  The time of the Messiah would be a time of universal religion.  He designates Zerubbabel, a descendent of David, to be the anointed one, the grandson of Jehoiachin.  The reality was that he never came to the throne.

Haggai raises the question of who can worship in the temple, and suggests that they must not throw open the doors of the sanctuary to anyone felt drawn to it. Rather, they must offer worthy sacrifices. He did this, recognizing the prophecy of Isaiah and the warning against foreign alliances. Given the historical reality that whatever Israel experienced at this time occurred in Jerusalem, it is little wonder that the Zion tradition was especially meaningful for these prophets. They are part of a long Zion tradition that looked forward to a time when the nations would come to Jerusalem and worship Yahweh.

The way Zechariah puts it, the reign of God will come when they rebuild the temple. The rebuilding of the temple is the dawn of salvation. He records eight visions, a different medium than most prophets. God does not speak directly to him. Rather, God has intermediaries, angels in particular, who will talk with the prophet. We might speculate that if the remoteness of God became a theme, they developed a way for representatives of God to communicate. He has a brief appearance of Satan in 3:1-2.

Haggai 1:1-15 has the theme of the restoration of the temple. It was Sukkoth, the Feast of Booths, commemorating the flight of Israel from Egypt, when the people lived in temporary dwellings in the wilderness of Sinai (Leviticus 23:42-43). On August 29, 520 BC the word of the Lord came through Haggai to Zerubbabel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua, the high priest. In Ezra 5:1-2, Haggai is among those who helped rebuild the Temple. According to Ezra 10:18, some of the descendants of Joshua would marry foreign women. It seems the people say the time has not yet come to rebuild the house of the Lord. Joyce Baldwin says that it was harvest time, so they may have thought they could not both harvest and build the temple. They may also have thought that God would build the temple that Ezekiel described. The prophet wonders, however, if the time is ripe for them to live in their paneled houses, while the house of the Lord is in ruins. He asks them to consider how they have fared, and in doing so, is challenging their priorities. They were putting the palace for the governor and their homes before the House of the Lord. They have sown much, and harvested little. They eat, but they never have enough. They drink, but never have their fill. They clothe themselves, but they are not warm. The earn wages, but the bags into which they put the money has holes. Again, consider how they have fared. The Lord invites them to go up to the hills, bring wood, build the house, so that the Lord may take pleasure in it, and receive honor. Baldwin says this is the central message of Haggai. By obeying, they will turn their backs on indifference. They will bring glory to God by this work. They have looked for much and it came to little. The reason for all this is that the house of the Lord is in ruins, while they built homes for themselves. Therefore, they have received no rain and little fruit from the land. The Lord has called for a drought. The prophet is making a connection between the plight of the people and their failure to build the temple. We now hear the response to the prophet. With these words from the prophet, Zerubbabel, Joshua, and the remnant of the people obeyed the voice of the Lord through Haggai, as the Lord sent him. The people feared the Lord. Then Haggai, the messenger of the Lord, said to the people that the Lord is with them, offering a comforting and encouraging word. The Lord stirred up the spirit of Zerubbabel, Joshua, and the remnant of the people, working in a quiet way among them and in them, to the point that they worked on the house of the Lord. 23 days, September 21, 520, would lapse between the prophecy and the beginning of the work.

Haggai 1:15b-2:23 are oracles of encouragement. He receives a new word from the Lord on October 17, 520. He delivers the message in the last ordinary day of the Feast of Booths.  He addresses the two leaders, Zerubbabel the secular leader and Joshua the high priest, but this time he addresses the remnant as well. Do some of them remember the House of the Lord in its former glory? How does it look to them now? It seems as nothing. The elders must have spoken nostalgically about that.  The verse may refer not just to the physical structure but also to the political realities of a Judean kingdom vs. the little province of Yehud. Yet, the leaders and the people are to take courage. The Lord is with them. For Haggai, the bottom line for a place of worship was not about how it was constructed or how it looked, but who was there. Strength comes from the presence of the Lord. The prophet knows this, for the Lord promised that when the Lord brought them out of Egypt, the Lord would be with them. Therefore, the key architectural criterion for sacred space is that it is a place where God’s “spirit abides among you.” They could take courage in that reality. It will not be long until the Lord will shake the heavens, earth, sea, and dry land. The Lord will shake the nations. It will not be long before the Lord shakes all creation.  The whole universe will experience an "earthquake."  The gentiles will bring their treasures to Jerusalem.  The silver and gold belongs to the Lord. The manifestation of that divine power will be the convulsions of nature and culture. Such are typical reactions to the march of the divine warrior that is rooted in the earliest layers of Israel’s religious imagery. Prosperity will come to all nations. The result of that divine intervention is that vast foreign wealth will flow to the rebuilding effort, yielding a temple surpassing Solomon’s for splendor. The Lord will give them prosperity, the word here being shalom, the blessing of the Messianic age. That the eventual product fell far short of the prophetic vision is unremarkable in the long interplay between prophetic vision and historical reality in the Old Testament. The Lord owns all wealth. 

Haggai 2:10-23 continue with oracles of encouragement. Verses 10-19 focus on the blessing typified by their present harvest. A new word from the Lord comes on December 18, 520. Haggai is to ask of the priests for an official ruling on a matter of Torah. If one carries consecrated mean in the fold of one’s garment, and the fold touches bread, stew, wine, oil, or any kind of food, does it become holy? The priests answer no. In contrast, ritual defilement was passed on by contact. Meyers & Meyers say that Haggai is using this ruling as a way of saying that the rebuilding of the temple has a relation to the fortunes of the people. Haggai responds that so it is with this people and nation to the Lord. The Lord finds that what the people offer is unclean. The point is that Israel had been set apart for the Lord, but now experienced defilement. The ruined temple was like a corpse in their midst. There was no cleansing available except free acceptance by God. He asks them to consider what will happen. Before people laid one stone upon another for the temple, how did they fare? Things had worsened. The grain yielded only have of what was supposed to do. The Lord struck them and their work, the latter with mildew and hail. Yet, they did not return to the Lord. This refers to Amos 4:9, where the Lord has the power to withhold harvest. They are to consider from this day onward, with the foundation of the temple laid, whether there is any seed left in the barn. Do the vine, fig tree, pomegranate, and olive tree still yield nothing? From this day onward, the Lord will bless them. The prophet is predicting an abundant harvest. One can compare this with Ezra 3:10-13, which speaks of a foundation-laying ceremony of which this book seems unaware. In verses 20-23, we find the last prophetic word of Haggai addressed to Zerubbabel, on December 18, 520, the same day as the previous oracle. The Lord is about to shake the heavens and earth, to overthrow the throne of kingdoms. The Lord is about to destroy the strength of the kingdoms of the nations, the chariots and their riders, the horses and their riders. They shall fall by the sword of a comrade. In the last days, God will act and Judah will not need to fight. On that day, the Lord will take Zerubbabel, “my servant,” and make him like a signet ring, for the Lord has chosen him. He expects the new age to begin. The sentence pronounced in Jeremiah 22:24 finds its reversal here. The Lord renews the election of the Davidic king.

 

 

9a Zechariah 1-8 (February 15, 519 to December 7, 518, 8 Chapters)

Zechariah 1:1-6 is the introduction.  In November-December 520, the word of the Lord came to Zechariah. His father here is Iddo, but in Ezra 5:1, 6:14, and Nehemiah 12:16 he is the grandfather. In Nehemiah 12:14 he is part of the priestly group that returned in 538. The Lord is angry with their ancestors, referring to pre-exilic Judeans. The exile was punishment for their sins. The prophet calls on the people present to return to the Lord, and if they do, the Lord will return to them. They are not to be like their pre-exilic ancestors. We can assume that returning to Judea and starting the rebuilding of the temple were not enough. They had prophets who urged them to turn from their evils ways and deeds. Yet, they did not hear or heed the Lord. We find these words in II Chronicles 30:7 as well. Where are their ancestors? Where are the prophets? Do they live forever? Such ironic questions are to stimulate them to learn from the past. Yet, the words and statutes of the Lord overtook them. Therefore, they repented and said the Lord of hosts has dealt with them in accord with their ways and deeds, just as the Lord planned to do, a reference to Jeremiah 25:4-5 and 35:15. Ezekiel 33:11 is also a close parallel. To return to the Lord means they must adhere to the prophets and to the Law. Zechariah is immediately connecting himself with these prophets. It provides some legitimizing of his words. He encourages reflection on the covenant. The word of the Lord now has a close connection to the Law, a process begun in the Deuteronomic tradition, as noted by Meyers &Meyers. The return to the Lord that Zechariah envisions is similar to that of Haggai, as they dedicate themselves to building the temple. The concern of Zechariah, according to Meyers & Meyers, is the significance of the work already begun on the temple. He has established the tone of his work.

Zechariah 1:7-6:8 contain several night visions. Pannenberg,[3] in a discussion of the eternity of God, notes that heaven is the place where God makes decisions about earthly events, and where resolve and execution are the same thing for God. Thus, the future, and especially the future event of salvation, is already present for God. We see in these visions that end-time events on earth are already present in heaven. All of this suggests that heaven expresses the thought that all times are present for the eternity of God.

 Zechariah 1:7-17 is the first vision, that of horses patrolling the earth. This vision is universal. We will see a steady narrowing of the first three visions. On February 15, 519, the word of the Lord came to Zechariah. In the night, he saw a man riding on a red horse, along with other riders on white horses. Meyers 7 Meyers say that horses were not the normal means of transportation, reserved for wealthy and the military. With no chariots, the emphasis is on the swiftness. As the prophet continues, the man was standing among the myrtle trees in the glen. An angel was with him, so he asked what the vision meant. The Lord has sent them to patrol the earth. Meyers & Meyers say that this might follow the pattern of Persian system of intelligence and communication, which could be quite speedy and secret. The focus here is on divine knowledge of human activity. They spoke to the angel of the Lord that they had patrolled the earth thoroughly. The earth remains at peace. The angel of the Lord asks the Lord of hosts how long will the Lord withhold mercy from Jerusalem and Judah, with who the Lord has been angry for 70 years (see Jeremiah 25:11-12, 29:10, although it refers to Judean rule)? The question assumes that the anger of the Lord continues and that the Lord suspended the love of the Lord toward Judah. The prophet is reinterpreting the 70 years for his time. The Lord replied with gracious and comforting words to the angel. Meyers & Meyers say that we are to imagine the Lord as emperor and the angels as those who help the Lord control the realm as servant of the emperor. The angel then told him to proclaim this message. The Lord is jealous for Jerusalem and Zion. The Lord is angry with the nations that are at ease. The point is that the political situation is stable. While the Lord was a little angry, they made the disaster worst. The Lord is angry with the Persians because they have not allowed Judea its independence. Therefore, the Lord has returned to Jerusalem with compassion. The people will build the House of the Lord. The Lord will stretch the measuring line out over Jerusalem. The cities will again overflow with prosperity, will again comfort Zion, and will again choose Jerusalem. The rebuilding of the temple means the end of the anger of the Lord. Jerusalem will again become a religious and political center. The prophet still has hope for political independence and Davidic rule.

Zechariah 1:18-21 is the second vision, the four horns and the four smiths. This vision narrows from the universal to Judah. The horns are a symbol of might, while four refers to the ends of the earth. Combined, it refers to the might of the earth. Meyers & Meyers suggest the vision is retrospective, interpreting the recent history of Judah. Zechariah looked up and saw four horns, and he asks the angel what they are. The angel answers that they are the horns (Assyria and Babylon) that have scattered Judah, Israel, and Jerusalem, referring to the exile. The Lord showed him four blacksmiths, and he asked what they are coming to do. The Lord answered that they are the horns that scattered Judah, so that no head could rise. However, the blacksmiths (Persians), agents of the will of the Lord, have come to terrify them, to strike down the horns of the nations that lifted up their horns against Judah and scattered its people. The metalworkers will reverse the policies of the nations in scattering Judah.

Zechariah 2:1-5 is the third vision, the man with the measuring cord. This vision narrows further to Jerusalem. Zechariah looks up, sees a man with a measuring line in his hand, and asks what he is doing. The man answered that he is to measure Jerusalem for its width and length. The angel previously referred to and another came forward to meet him and said he is to run that young man (an official other than Zechariah) and say that Jerusalem shall be inhabited like villages without walls due to the people and animals in it. The Lord will build a wall of fire all around it and the Lord will be the glory within it. Meyers & Meyers stress that this measuring anticipates a Jerusalem that will be full with a rebuilt city and restored temple. The boundaries are related to the restored Davidic line. The messengers of God are in motion, suggesting the active role of God in the world. All of this suggests to Meyers & Meyers that this vision is eschatological. The eschatological vision has its grounding in the Persian reality, but the prophet does not take the reduced role of Judah and Jerusalem as permanent.

Zechariah 2:6-13 is an expansion on the themes of the first three visions. First, the prophet offers a call to the exiles to leave their homes in Babylon and return to Zion. The Lord says they must flee from the land of the north, the land from which invaders from Babylon came, for the Lord has spread them abroad like the four winds of heaven. The Lord is responsible for the exile, which is global. They are to escape to Zion, if they live with “daughter Babylon.” Thus, this prophesy concerns only those exiled to Babylon. Second, the prophet makes it clear that Judah still occupies a special place in the plans of god in spite of Persian rule. The Lord of hosts speaks to the prophet after “the glory,” the divine presence sent him, regarding the nations that plundered them. The language is close to Jeremiah 50:9-16. However, it could refer to Persia here. If so, it expresses the belief that all foreign domination must cease. One who touches Judah touches “the apple of my eye.” They are to look carefully, for the Lord is going raise a hand against them, and they shall become plunder for their own slaves, the servant becoming the master. The point is that God will arouse destructive action against anyone who is against Judah. God is the one who ensures the well-being of Judah. Then they will know the Lord has sent Zechariah. Third, the prophet envisions the universal dominion of the Lord and the return of the presence of the Lord to Jerusalem. Daughter Zion is to sing and rejoice, for the Lord will come and dwell in their midst. Many (meaning all) nations shall join themselves to the Lord on that day and shall be “my people.” This suggests a day when Judah and the nations shall be equal before the Lord. The Lord will dwell in their midst. The prophet envisions a time when the Lord will rule the world from Jerusalem. All of this suggests an eschatological vision, using the terminology of covenant. They shall know the Lord has sent them. The Lord will inherit Judah as a portion belong to the Lord in the holy land (only occurrence in the Old Testament), and will again choose Jerusalem. The people are to be silent before the Lord, for the Lord has aroused from the divine holy dwelling.

Barth[4] will discuss the history of the Jewish people, acknowledging that if we look at it seriously, it becomes an actual demonstration of the divine ruling or governance of this world. Even after 70 AD, God did not abandon this people. In fact, God turned toward them and accepted solidarity with them. While often faithfulness, their election and covenant with God remains. This election finds fulfillment in Jesus Christ, and therefore, the Jews stand in world history. He thinks of this as the secret of their continued existence, a mystery of divine faithfulness and grace. Their race, language, culture, or Law is not the source of their preservation, but the faithfulness and grace of God. They often disobeyed, and they scorned Jesus. Yet, because they are the people of God, even when they did not want to be or choose to be, they remain within world history. The Jews are this people, and therefore, they are the apple of the Lord’s eye. No one can touch this apple. Therefore, the Jews are despised, hated, oppressed, persecuted, and assimilated, but one cannot really touch them or exterminate them. One cannot destroy them. They are the only people that necessarily continue to exist, with the same certainty as that God is God, and that what God has willed and said is not whim. The history of the Jews is the embodiment of this theme of all world history. What confronts us is a trace of divine world governance, a trace in which we recognize who it is that exercises the divine control.

Zechariah 3:1-10 is the fourth vision involving Joshua and the priestly vestments. Meyer & Meyer suggest that it not be part of the numbered visions because it is so different from the other visions. Meyers & Meyers suggest this vision may be part of the historical installation service for Joshua. The also think the text shows some nervousness among the people for not having a king. They think that we are to imagine a scene at the heavenly court over which the Lord presides. The Lord showed Zechariah the high priest Joshua standing before the angel of the Lord, as Joshua is the issue before the court today. Satan stood at his right to accuse him as a prosecuting attorney. The angel of the Lord is the defender. The accuser, however, does not get a chance to speak. Having already decided the case, the Lord rebuked Satan. The Lord chooses Jerusalem and rebukes Satan. Joshua is a brand plucked from the fire, an image found in Amos 4:11 as well. Zechariah notes that Joshua wore filthy clothes, possibly the result of being in exile. The angel told all those standing before him to take off his filthy clothes. To Joshua, the angel said that he removes the guilt of Joshua and clothes him with festal apparel. Zechariah wanted them to put a clean turban on his head, so they did so, for which see Exodus 29:5-7 and Leviticus 8:7-9. The angel assured Joshua that if he will walk in the ways of the Lord and keep the requirements of the Lord, then he shall rule the House of the Lord and have charge of the courts of the Lord. The Lord will give him the right of access among those who stand there. These would appear to be expanded duties from the pre-exilic times. The priest will have access to the divine council, whereas before only prophets had such access. He is to listen carefully, for those who are with him are an omen of things to come. The Lord is going to bring “my servant the Branch.” Zechariah is trying to deal with David traditions of ideal Israel. The branch or shoot is the first growth of a vine or tree. It may refer to Zerubbabel. The agricultural background gives way to prophetic and Davidic hopes. See Jeremiah 23:5 and 33:5. Such a notion would arouse Persian authorities, for they would not allow him to be king. The Lord will set a stone before Joshua with seven facets and engrave its inscription. The Lord will remove the guilt of this land in a single day. “On that day,” which could refer to the completion of the building of the temple or to the day of the Messiah, they shall invite each other to come under the fine and fig tree.

Zechariah 4:1-14 is the fifth vision, having the theme of the lampstand and olive trees. Revelation 11:1-14 likely uses the images here for the two witnesses at the last time. The angel who talked with Zechariah came to him again, awakening him, the prophet realizing that his visions give him a new grasp on reality, as different as sleep is from being awake. He asked what he saw. Zechariah said he says a lampstand all of gold, with a bowl on top of it. According to Meyers & Meyers, this does not match the description of the lampstands in either Exodus or Kings. Zechariah would never have seen them, since according to II Kings 25:15 the Babylonians melted the gold objects. He might rely upon an oral tradition. He identifies the lampstands with the pre-monarchy situation, even while he lives in a non-monarchy situation. By it are two olive trees, one on the right of the bowl and the other on its left, symbolizing the High Priest and the Governor. The angel asked Zechariah what these things are. He said he did not know. The angel the word of the Lord is that not by might, nor by power, but by the spirit of the Lord. The prophet affirms the involvement of God and divine control of world events, as well as affirms the status quo. Are you a great mountain? Before Zerubbabel, you shall become a plain. Referring to Mount Zion, Zerubbabel shall bring out the top stone (a stone from the old temple used in the new construction, for which see Ezekiel 3:10-12) amid shouts of “Grace, grace to it!” The word of the Lord is also that the hands of Zerubbabel have laid the foundation of the House of the Lord. His hands shall also complete it. The community needed a connection between the old and the new temple, and Zerubbabel was that connection. Then they will know the Lord has sent Zechariah to them. For whoever has despised the day of small things shall rejoice, and shall see the plummet in the hand of Zerubbabel. One can assume that since Zerubbabel was a Persian appointee his legitimacy would be in question. All of this suggests acceptance of non-monarchy reality, even while having the hope for a dynasty in the future. These seven (important number in this vision, possibly referring to the Year of Jubilee) are the eyes of the Lord that range through the whole earth, emphasizing the omniscience of God. Zechariah asked about the two olive trees on the right and the left of the lampstand. Further, he wonders about the two branches of the olive trees that pour out the oil through the two golden pipes. The angel marvels that he does know what they are. The angel tells him they are the two anointed ones who stand by the Lord of the whole earth, suggesting the equality of the priestly and political leaders. The affirmation provides a universal conclusion to the vision. They are legitimate successors to leadership in post-exile Judah.

Zechariah 5:1-4 is the sixth vision, which is that of the flying scroll. Meyers & Meyers do not think it fits well with previous visions. The theme is the rule of law in the community. The likelihood is that the scroll symbolizes the Torah. Zechariah looks up and sees a flying scroll. The angel asked what he sees, and the prophet identifies it as a flying scroll and its length as 20 cubits and its width as 10 cubits, or 10 meters by 5 meters, giving the scroll the dimensions of a billboard. The dimension would be suitable in heaven. The angel says the scroll is the curse that goes out over the land, suggesting the curse embedded in the legal contract of the time. The blessing of the covenant can occur only if the Law takes hold. Of course, this curse appeals to the Ten Commandments, for which see Jeremiah 7 and Hosea 4. Everyone who steals the Lord shall cut off, in accord with the writing on one side of the scroll. Everyone who swears falsely the Lord shall cut off, in accord with the writing on the other side of the scroll. The Lord has sent it out and it shall enter the house of the thief and the house of anyone who swears falsely. It shall abide in that house, consuming it.

Zechariah 5:5-11 is the seventh vision, which is the woman in the bushel measure. The angel commands Zechariah to look up and see what is coming out. The prophet asks what it is. The angel points to the basket or barrel of grain, which he identifies as the iniquity in all the land. Someone lifted the lead cover. A woman stood in the basket, reminding that the dimensions are likely large, since the vision occurs in heaven. It could refer to the statue of a goddess. The angel said that this is Wickedness, which could refer to idolatry. The angel thrust her back into the basket, pressed the cover down on its mouth. Then the prophet looked up and saw two women coming forward. The wind was in their wings. The imagery suggests cherubim. They had wings like that of a stork, also a female image. They lifted up the basket between earth and sky. The prophet asked the angel where they were taking the basket. The angel said to the land of Shinar, to Babylon, to build a house for it. When someone prepares the house, the two women will set the basket down on its base. The prophet is intentional in having wickedness go to Babylon.

Zechariah 6:1-8 is the eighth vision, which is that of four chariots. The first vision also had four horses. The chariot suggests warlike purpose. Zechariah looks up, seeing four chariots coming from between two mountains of bronze, seemingly signifying that they come from God. The first had red horses, the second black horses (going north), the third white horses (going west), and the fourth dappled gray horses (going south). He asked the angel what they are. The angel answered that they are the four winds of heaven going out. They have already presented themselves before the Lord of all the earth, reminding us that God is in charge over what happens on the world scene. They were impatient to patrol the earth. The angel told them to do so. As they did so, the cried out to Zechariah that those who go toward the north country have set my spirit at rest in the north country. We should note that a universal divine presence begins and ends this vision. The spirit of God is present and active in world events now. The spirit of God in the north, which is either Babylon or Persia, gives legitimacy to what is happening now. The Lord is policing the Persian system.

Zechariah 6:9-15 is an oracle concerning the crowning. The word of the Lord came to Zechariah to collect silver and gold from the exiles, identifying Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah. They have arrived from Babylon. The passage is addressing the problem of the relation between those still in Babylon and those who have returned. They are also to go to Josiah, the son of Zephaniah, a priest taken to Babylon, according to Jeremiah 21:1 and 52:74ff. With the gold and silver they are to make a crown and set it on Joshua. He is to say to him that here is the man whose name is Branch. He shall branch out in his place. He shall build the temple of the Lord. He shall bear royal honor. He shall sit upon his throne and rule. All of this suggests to Meyers & Meyers that the building of the temple is a future eschatological event. A priest shall be by his throne, with peaceful understanding between the two of them. The four men named shall care for the crown, for it will be a memorial in the temple of the Lord. Those who are far off shall help build the temple. Then they shall know the Lord has sent Zechariah to Joshua. This will happen if Joshua diligently obeys the voice of the Lord, suggesting that the result of obedience will be a Davidic dynasty. Zechariah is dealing deliberately with the idea of a priest with some royal responsibilities. It acts as a commentary on Jeremiah 33:17. While some think this passage unites priest and royal authority into one, Meyers & Meyers do not think so. They think the priest is to receive crown now, while the crown for the king must await the future. They think Zechariah has accomplished much by giving the Davidic king an eschatological role, while giving the priest a present role, facing the present situation with some realism. The point is the present situation is not permanent. The prophet restores the non-monarchic beginning of Israel to the present post-exile situation, while the monarchic success of David moves toward an eschatological vision of the future.

Zechariah 7:1-6 introduces a set of oracles related to fasting. The word of the Lord came to Zechariah in the fourth year of King Darius. Darius commanded the recording of the law of Egypt, so he could easily have done so with the Jewish people as well. The situation was that the people of Bethel, 12 miles north of Jerusalem, experiencing destruction in either 480 or 460, had sent Sharezer and Regem-melech and their servants to ask a favor of the Lord. They recognize the growing authority of Jerusalem in this post-exile time. They asked the priests of the house of the Lord and the prophets whether they should mourn and abstain in the fifth month (the destruction of the temple), as they have done for so many years, suggesting the institution of an official lament. We should also observe that the priests were the natural leaders. In response, the answer transcends a cultic detail. The word of the Lord becomes a question of whether for 70 years they have fasted for the Lord. He wonders that when they eat and drink, do they do so only for themselves. Assuming that the oracle came in the 70^th year, the year is 517 BC. We see Zechariah dealing with an authoritative legal system, even as he has already dealt with the temple and the priesthood. The focus of the oracle is on what their practices have accomplished in these 70 years. They have behaved in certain ways and sustained cultural identity without monarchy.

Zechariah 7:7-14 is an address to the delegation from Bethel, offering further retrospection on Divine justice. The prophet asks about the words that the Lord proclaimed by earlier, pre-exilic prophets. At that time, Jerusalem had people and prosperity, along with the land around it, giving the oracle a political thrust. The word of the Lord was that they are to render true judgments, show kindness and mercy to each other, do not oppress the widow, the orphan, the foreigner, or the poor. They are not to devise evil in their hearts against each other. All of this suggests general social justice and not justice in the courts. It suggests that justice and love need to complement each other. Yet, the people refused to listen. They turned a stubborn shoulder. They refused to hear. They made their hearts adamant so that they could not hear the Law or the words of the Lord through the pre-exile prophets. Therefore, the anger of the Lord came upon them. When the Lord called, they would not hear. Therefore, when they called, the Lord did not hear. The Lord scattered them with a whirlwind among the nations they had not known. The pleasant land they left became desolate. The prophet shows knowledge of the Pentateuch, some prophetic materials, and even the Deuteronomic History.

Zechariah 8:1-17 contains seven oracles that relate to Zion and Judah restored. The first oracle is that the word of the Lord came to Zechariah that the Lord is jealous for Zion with great wrath. The commitment of the Lord to Israel is so intense that it reverses the exile. The second oracle is that the Lord will return to Zion and dwell in the midst of Jerusalem. Jerusalem shall be a faithful city (unique in the Old Testament the phrase is City of Truth) and the mountain shall be holy. The third oracle is that old men and women shall sit in the streets of Jerusalem, each with staff in hand due to their old age. The streets of the city shall be full of boys and girls playing. This oracle envisions the re-population of the city. The fourth oracle is that even though it seems impossible to the remnant, it becomes possible with the Lord. To question its possibility is to question the power of the Lord. The fifth oracle is that the Lord will save “my people” from the east and west country. The Lord will bring them to live in Jerusalem, “They shall be my people and I will be their God, in faithfulness and in righteousness.” Yet, we have no hint of people returning from Egypt. However, the prophet clearly envisions the renewal of the covenant with God. The sixth oracle is that they are to strengthen their hands. They have recently heard words of prophets present when the people laid the foundation for the rebuilding of the temple, the house of the Lord. Before then, people had no wages. They hd no safety. The Lord set them against each other. Now, the Lord will act differently with the remnant. They shall sow peace, the vine shall yield its fruit, the ground shall be productive, the skies shall deliver rain, and the remnant shall possess these things. They have been a curse among the nations because the Lord cut them off. The Lord will save them and they shall become a blessing. They are not be afraid. They are to strengthen their hands. The prophet envisions a re-structured political and economic order with the re-establishing of the covenant and the rebuilding of the temple. The seventh oracle is that the Lord had the purpose of bringing disaster upon them, when their ancestors provoked the Lord to wrath. The Lord did not relent. Yet, now the Lord has a new purpose to do good to Jerusalem. Do not be afraid. They shall speak the truth to each other (truth is to pervade the social order), render true judgments in their gates, make for peace, not devise evil in their hearts against each other, and love no false oath. The Lord hates these things. The prophet shows acquaintance with the language of the Torah here.

Zechariah 8:18-23 contains three oracles regarding Judah and the nations. The first oracle is that in Judah, the fast of the fourth (when Judean leadership fled Jerusalem), fifth (destruction of Jerusalem), seventh (death of Gedaliah), and tenth (siege of Jerusalem) months is to become a festival of gladness and cheer. Therefore, they are to love truth and peace. The second oracle is that peoples shall yet come from many cities and seek a favor of the Lord. They shall seek the Lord in Jerusalem. The third oracle is that “in those days” ten people from the nations of every language shall take hold of a Jew and desire to go with them, for they have heard God is with them. These visions are eschatological, to Meyers & Meyers, referring to a time when the nations shall come to Jerusalem. The three oracles have an ever-broadening circle of people. The nations will recognize one God and Judaism as primary. The prophet envisions that the people of the world will find their way to the Lord through those who already stand in relation to the Lord.

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[1] The Prophets Volume II, 159-175.

[2] Theology of the Old Testament.

[3] Systematic Theology Volume 1, 405.

[4] Church Dogmatics III.3 [49.3] 217-9.

Lesson Seven: Habakkuk and Obadiah

Habakkuk and the Philosophical Context

Habakkuk offered his prophecy between 609-605, and one part may come from 600. Klaus Koch (The Prophets) says he was a younger contemporary of Jeremiah. He will stress that Judah will not be able to withstand the assault of the Chaldeans. This happens because violence rules in Judah. Leaders have destroyed the just order of society. His social criticism is as sharp as Amos or Micah. The prophet attacks the one greedy for gain. Watts says the oracle refers to a Judean tyrant and a foreign oppressor. There is another title at 3:1. He may have been one of the Levites who conducted temple worship in Jerusalem, suggested due to the many worship references in the book. Achtemeier says Habakkuk has the primary concern for the purposes of God and the realization of the will of God for the world. She does not believe he was a cult prophet. The prophet receives mention in the apocryphal addition to Daniel that discusses the god Bel and a dragon who is also a god. This prophet sees the coming judgment upon Judah at the hands of Babylon.  However, he questions whether this is just.  Though he can see the sin of Judah, it appears to him that the sins of Babylon are much greater.  Thus, how can God justify using a wicked nation to punish a less wicked nation?  There are two complaints by the prophet, and there are two replies by the Lord.  The answers are not satisfying.  If he thinks the situation is bad now, it will get worse.  However, the person who is just will survive. He offers a woe upon oppressors, especially those who amass goods that do not belong to them, ill-gotten gains, murder, drink, and idolatry. He offers a plea to the Lord to deliver Judah from the approaching menace from the East.

Habakkuk 1:1 is the title referring to the oracle, or words, as Zechariah 9 & 12 as well as Malachi suggest, that the prophet saw in the sense of having a vision.

Habakkuk 1:2-2:4 is a dialogue between a prophet and his God. Von Rad (Old Testament Theology) says that this section is a liturgical dialogue between the prophet and the Yahweh. Twice the prophet lays a complaint before Yahweh. He thinks it difficult to tell if the complaint is against enemies within or without. The answer is surprising in that more judgment is coming. Things are getting worse. How can Yahweh do this? The answer is that those who are faithful will live. Note that this prophet takes the initiative, whereas Amos, Micah, Isaiah, and others, God called first. In 1:2-4 he offers his first complaint. The concern, as Achtemeier sees it, is for justice, the order ordained by God for the covenant people. How long shall the prophet cry for help and the Lord will not listen? Watts points out here that in spite of unanswered prayer, the prophet continues to pray. God is present, even when the evidence is not there. The prophet focuses on the violence, most likely referring to what he sees happening in Judah, and the Lord does not save. His concern is the internal conflict he sees. His central complaint is that, as a prophet, the Lord makes him see the wrong and trouble, instead of receiving words and visions that speak of divine action. Destruction, violence, strife, and contention are what he sees. The law becomes slack so that justice does not prevail. Achtemeier points out that apparently the people have already forgotten the religious reform under Josiah. The result is chaos and oppression. The prophet concludes by saying that the wicked surround the righteous in a way that perverts judgment. Achtemeier will stress that the complaint is that there is no order in society. The Lord has an interest in justice at all levels. Therefore, he turns to God, but God does not hear. Yet, the complaint is that law and justice are losing their battles with evil. This violates the expected order when one believes one is living in a covenant relation with God. God does not seem to live up to the covenant relationship, even while the prophet has been faithful. 1:5-11 contains the first answer from the Lord. His point is that the Chaldeans are instruments of the justice of God. He is to look at the nations. God is doing a work that one will hardly believe, for the Lord is rousing the Chaldeans to seize dwellings not their own. Jeremiah 27:6a, given in 594, agrees, “Now I have given all these lands into the hand of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, my servant …” Babylon is an instrument of God. They are fierce and impetuous. They embody dread and fear. Their justice and dignity proceed from themselves. Horses are swift as leopards and menacing as wolves. Those who ride the horses fly like an eagle swift to devour. They come for violence. They gather captives like sand. They scoff at kings and rulers. They laugh at every fortress. They sweep by like the wind, which may refer to 604, when the Babylonians passed by Judea to attack Egypt. Their god is their own strength. Achtemeier points out that the Lord is reassuring the prophet that what he sees is the work of God, even though it appears only people are at work on the world scene. Since the people of the covenant are doing injustice and violence, the answer of the Lord is to give them more of it! 1:12-17 offers a second complaint. The prophet begins with an affirmation from the creeds and hymns of the time. Is the Lord not from of old? The Lord shall not die. The Lord has marked them for judgment and punishment. The eyes of the Lord are too pure to behold evil. The Lord is not silent when wrongdoing and treachery are present. Achtemeier will suggest that if the Babylonians are instruments of punishment, the Lord will not destroy Judah forever, for the purpose of God is always correction. The Lord has made the people like the fish of the sea, or like crawling things that have no ruler. The enemy brings them up with a hook and drags them out with a net, bringing the enemy to rejoice. The enemy sacrifices and makes offerings to the net. Is he to keep on emptying his net and destroying the nations without mercy? Thus, Achtemeier points out, if the victory of Babylon is temporary, that does not solve his problem of waiting years for the fulfillment of the good purposes of God on earth. After all, the Babylonians will simply mean replacing a chaotic order with a godless one. He is perplexed about the fulfillment of the purposes of God. God has a purpose. God will replace the wickedness of Judah with the wickedness of Babylon. The march of God toward the goal seems to be a zig-zag approach. In 2:1-4 we find the second answer of the Lord. The prophet will stand at his watch post and keep watch for an answer to his complaint, a symbol of constant openness to the divine word, says Achtemeier. Watts will stress that the prophet respects the divine freedom here. Further, Jeremiah 42:7 shows the prophet waiting for ten days. The Lord answered that he must write down the vision, making it plain on tablets, a reference to the tablets of the Torah, which we also see in Isaiah 30:8 and Jeremiah 17:1.  In that sense, what the prophet writes is as ironclad as the original covenant. The Lord has a vision for the appointed time. It speaks of the end, and does not lie. If it seems to tarry, wait for it, for it will surely come. The point here is that the silence of God does not mean that God is dead. Human beings always live between what God has already done and what faith expects God to do. Faith says that the answer will not fail. Barth^[1] says that faith has need of hope, which we can see from the innumerable temptations that assail and shake those who would cling to the Word of God. One example that he sees here is the delay of God in the fulfillment of the promises of God. Look at the proud. Their spirit is not right, however, the righteous live by their faith. Hebrews 10:38 refers to this passage. Paul uses it in Romans 1:17 and Galatians 3:11. However, Habakkuk is most concerned with the conduct of the righteous in times of trial. Barth[2] stresses that for the one who believes, the day of the Lord will not be a day of darkness. Rather, it will be a day in which the one who believes or has faith will remain alive in virtue of that faith.

Habakkuk 2:5-20 is the third segment, focusing on the curses on the oppressor. The prelude says that wealth is treacherous and the arrogant do not endure. Like Death, they never have enough. Barth^[3] notes that death comes with its own dynamic, in virtue of which it invades the areas that properly belong to the world of life. The point of the passage, says Achtemeier, is that true life is impossible for the proud and mighty. They gather all nations for themselves and collect all peoples as their own. The first woe is that everyone taunts such people, for the heap up what is not their own. Their own creditors will rise and make them tremble. They will become booty for them. Those who survive will plunder them. The second woe is that they have devised shame for themselves. By cutting off many peoples, they have forfeited their lives. The stones will cry out from the wall. The third woe is that they build a town through murder and iniquity. Watts says it refers to efforts to build a city with slave labor. However, the goal of God is the knowledge of the glory of the Lord throughout the earth, as the waters cover the sea. The fourth woe is that they compel others to drink of wrath, Yet, they are the ones who will stagger from drink. Drunkenness makes them believe in their own glory, but instead, shame will come upon them. The violence and murder on the earth will overwhelm them, suggesting that the atrocities of war return to burden the one who conquerors. The fifth woe is to ask what use is an idol once its maker has shaped it. Isaiah 44:9-20 is a fuller statement of a similar thought. It becomes a cast image, a teacher of lies. Its maker trusts in that which the maker has made, though the product is only an idol that cannot speak. Wood and stone do not wake up. However, the prophet will contrast the deadness of the idol with the living God, for the Lord is in the temple, let all the earth keep silence before the Lord.

Habakkuk 3:1-19 is the fourth segment, a prayer or plea for deliverance. It has a classification of a psalm or hymn. It has the musical note of Shigionoth and has the well-known Selah throughout. It concludes by saying it is to the leader, with stringed instruments. Watts suggests the mood is one of lament. It seems this prayer is for temple worship. He begins with a confession of faith in that he has heard of the renown of the Lord. He reveres the work of the Lord. The concern of the prophet is not his own work, Watts says, but the work of God. Next, the prophet describes a theophany. The vision here is the victory of the Lord over the earth and the establishment of the kingdom. Achtemeier says this is the most elaborate theophany in the Old Testament. He asks for the Lord to revive it in his time. ‘In wrath may you remember mercy.” God (Eloah is an old poetic name for God) came from Teman (the wilderness south of Canaan) and Mount Paran (territory south of Judah). The glory of the Lord covered the heavens and the earth is full of the praise of the Lord. He refers to the brightness of the sun, rays coming from the hand of the Lord, where divine power it hides. The approach of the Lord drives out pestilence and plague, according to Watts, rather than being attendants. As the Lord approaches, the greatest things on the earth react to the presence of the Lord. The Lord stopped and shook the earth. The Lord looked, and nations trembled. Mountains shattered and ancient pathways sank low. He saw the tents of Cushan and Midian under affliction. He wonders if the wrath of the Lord is against the rivers and the sea, where horses drove to victory. The Lord brandished the naked bow. The Lord split the earth with rivers. The mountains saw the Lord and trembled. The sun raised its hands, the moon stood still. In anger, the Lord trod the earth and trampled nations. The Lord came forth to save the people of the Lord and the anointed of the Lord. The Lord crushed the wicked house. The Lord pierced with their own arrows the head of warriors, who came like a whirlwind to scatter Judah. They were ready to devour the poor in hiding. The Lord trampled the sea, which may mean chaos defeated. All of this is similar to Armageddon in Christian tradition. The point, says Achtemeier, is to restore order to chaos. The conclusion is that the prophet hears and trembles at the sound. Achtemeier notes that the outward circumstances remain the same, but he now has assurance that God is working. Rottenness enters his bones. He waits quietly for the day of calamity to come upon the people who attack Judah. Watts points out that the prophet is confident of the victory of God. Even if no food comes from the crops, “Yet I will rejoice in the Lord; I will exult in the God of my salvation.” Achtemeier says that joy is the root of faith and hope that has its roots in God. The Lord is his strength. The Lord makes his feet like that of the deer and tread upon the heights, which has a parallel in Psalm 18:33, a royal psalm from around the time of David and Solomon. Achtemeier will also say that confession of faith reaches its climax in such words.





Obdiah and the Philosophical Context

            Obadiah was likely written between 587 and 450, but my suspicion is we need to place it here.  Edom was south of the Dead Sea, 70 miles north to south and 15 miles east to west.  David's brutal subjection of Edom in II Samuel 8:13-14. Edom's most notorious crime to the Jews was at 587 and its alliance with Babylon. If in 450, it would be just after Edom was expelled from its ancestral home in 525-474. The basis for this view is in verse 7. Verses 1-9 have a close connection with Jeremiah 49:7-22. Joel 2:32 seems to quote Obadiah as scripture. In 587, the Edomites aided the Babylonians and looted Judah.  They settled in south Judah under pressure from Arabs in the East, Hebron was their capitol.  Since Nabateans gained control of Edom in 300's, the book was written sometime between 587 and in the 300's. 

  The theme is the punishment of Edom and the day of the Lord, when Israel will take revenge on Edom. Some think that verses 19-21 are an addition, being part of the anti-­Edomite polemic after 587, see Ps. 137:7, Jer 49:7, Lm 4:21-22, Ez 25:12, 35:1, Mal 1:2.  Roland  E. Murphy (Interpreter’s Bible) thinks it has a vengeful, fanatical nationalism theme.  Yet, the justice belonged to God.  There is no sense of mission to the nations.

Klaus Koch grouped the book with Habakkuk.  He sees the audience as those who stayed behind after 587.  The day of the Lord has brought down judgment upon Edom.  This day is now imminent.  Edom's doom is linked to an Israelite advance against the nations to regain territory. v. 17-21 is a later addition describing the regions to be recovered.  The Lord will manifest royal dignity on a renewed Mount Zion.

Obadiah 1a is the first segment, the title, a vision of the prophet of Obadiah.

Obadiah 1b-4 is the second segment.  It has a close parallel with Jeremiah 49:12-15. It becomes the text for this part of his sermon. Concerning Edom, we have heard a report from the Lord from a messenger sent among the nations. The messenger offers the command to rise for battle. The messenger will make sure that Edom is the least among the nations, utterly despised. Their proud heart has deceived them. In their hearts, they wonder who will bring them down. Though they soar aloft like the eagle, setting their nest among the stars, the Lord will bring them down.

Obadiah 5-9 is the third segment. Verse 5 is close to Jeremiah 49:9 and verse 6 is close to Jeremiah 49:10. They form the text for this part of the sermon. If thieves came and plundered by night, they would steal only what they wanted. Others would leave gleanings for them. The pillaging of Esau is complete, a name that stresses the kinship between Israel (Jacob) and Edom (Esau). Allies have deceived them. Those who ate their bread have set a trap. “On that day” the Lord will destroy the wise from Edom. The Lord will shatter the warriors of Teman. They have lost wise political counsel and militarily weak. The passage stresses the totality of the destruction that Edom will face. Between 525 and 475, they disappear from history.

Obadiah 10-15 is the fourth segment. This text is the most complete account of what Edom did against Judah. It describes the treachery against Jerusalem in 587. They shall be cut off forever due to the slaughter and violence done to “your brother Jacob.” On that day, they stood aside, when strangers and foreigners entered its gates and cast lots, they were like one of them. They should not have gloated over their brother on the day of his misfortune. They should not have rejoiced on the day of their ruin. They should not have gloated on that day. They should not have cut off its fugitives as they sought escape. The reason is that the day of the Lord is near against all the nations. As they have done, so shall lit be done to them. Their deeds shall return on their own heads. John Watts says the plundering lasted a month. One can see the influence of this act in Psalm 137:2, Lamentations 4:21-22. The final act of wickedness was the capture of the king in II Kings 24:4-7.

Obadiah 16-18 is the fifth segment. One can see Jeremiah 25:15-29 for this image. They have drunk from the holy mountain of the Lord and become as though they had never been. Some shall escape on Mount Zion, and it shall be holy. The house of Jacob shall take possession of those who dispossessed them. Thus, in contrast to Edom, Mount Zion will come back. Judah will have a remnant. They shall be a fire and Esau the stubble.

Obadiah 19-21 is the sixth and final segment. This text might be an expansion of the original text. Those of the Negeb shall possess Mount Esau. They shall possess the land of the Philistines, Ephraim, and Samaria. Benjamin shall possess Gilead. The exile in Halah (Assyria) shall possess Phoenica. The exile in Sepharad (only mention in Bible, likely connected to Persia) shall possess the towns of the Negeb. Those who have been saved shall go to Mount Zion to rule Mount Esau. The kingdom shall belong to the Lord.

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[1] Church Dogmatics IV.3 [73.1] 913.

[2] Church Dogmatics II.1 [30.2] 390.

[3] Church Dogmatics III.2 [47.5] 591.

Lesson 6: Zephaniah and Nahum

Lesson Six: February 18, 2014

Isaiah 10-23 is mostly from this period and II Kings 19:9-35 and 20:1-11

Manasseh, 687-642

II Kings 21:1-18

Amon 642-640

II Kings 21:19-26

Josiah 640-609

II Kings 22:1-23:30 & II Chronicles 34-35

The book of Deuteronomy was the basis of the religious reform during this time.

Parts of Jeremiah

(4) Zephaniah (636-609, 3 Chapters)

Zephaniah and the Philosophical Context

During the reign of Josiah, the prophet Zephaniah, the great-great grandson of Hezekiah, offered his words in 632-621. Achtemeier thinks Chapters 1-2 show a period shortly after 640 BC, while 3:1-17 show a period between 612-609, and 3:18-20 reflect the Deuteronomic Historian.

The prophet was the great-great grandson of Hezekiah, king of Judah. Some people think that from a linguistic analysis all of the minor prophets were written at about the same time, between 630 and 520 BC, but set within certain times. Ben Zvi is a particular proponent of this position.   

His concern was for the immediate Scythian invasion as it affected Assyria in 632 BC, as well as the threat of Assyria itself.  Herodotus says Scythians were wild and ferocious marauders from the Asian interior. Medes and Assyrians were having trouble with them.

Klaus Koch summarizes that the prophet believes Judah is going to be devastated.  Yet, beyond that, he sees hope for the people who survive the coming destruction.  He proclaimed the downfall of Nineveh, which would come because of the city's pride. Koch also thinks that he may have had some influence on the reform initiated by Josiah and the Deuteronomic writings.

Watts will say that the prophet will be against foreign alliances and the worship of false gods. He believed pride was the greatest sin.

Adele Berlin (AB, 1994) says that Zephaniah shares with many other prophetic writings an overall structure of chastisement followed by comfort -- or, as modern studies often see it, a tripartite structure of judgment against Judah, judgment against the foreign nations, and a message of hope. She says it contains an elevated rhetorical style.  It is not a formally metrical one, but does contain many poetic tropes and the rhythm that comes from the repetition of phrases and from parallelism. She describes it as a highly literate work; it shares ideas and phraseology with other parts of the Hebrew Bible to such an extent that at times it may appear as nothing more than a appropriation of borrowed verses and allusions.  Themes from the early chapters of Genesis appear in all three Chapters of Zephaniah.  For example, Chapter 1 begins with a description that is a reversal of creation.  Chapter 2 plays on the view of the world in Genesis 10.  Chapter 3 contains a reference to Genesis 11, and becomes oracles against Jerusalem. In addition, one finds a number of links between the prophet and the writings of the Deuteronomic Historian. Zephaniah reflects the cultural milieu of the period from Hezekiah to Josiah. It pictures an expanded, wealthy Jerusalem.  Like the writings of the Deuteronomic History, Zephaniah is strongly anti-syncretistic.  The language of Zephaniah is closest to that of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. One can see a funeral dirge for Jerusalem in 3:1-4.  One can see the influence of Isaiah in 3:2 and 3:11, compare 2:15.

She will also urge us to adopt a “literary” approach to the text, rather than try to discover the original context of particular oracles. That will be the approach here.

Zephaniah 1:1 is the title. The book is the word of the Lord to Zephaniah, who was the great-grandson of Hezekiah. His father was “Cushi,” the word meaning the region of Ethiopia. It may suggest an African heritage, according to Watts. This word came when Josiah was king of Judah. The name means, “The Lord Protects.”

Zephaniah 1:2-2:3 has the theme of the Day of the Lord for Judah, reflecting the period 636-626. Achtemeier says we have here the major theme of the whole book. The origin was the tribal federation holy wars, with the Lord as divine warrior leading the armies of Israel. As with Amos, however, the prophets said that the war of the Lord could turn back upon Israel. The focus is not so much a time but an event. The image of that event is the wrath of God against wickedness. God is the warrior who engages in battles, weakening and destroying enemies. Wealth cannot save enemies. The event destroys human pride. Yet, the Lord may redeem a remnant.

Zephaniah 1: 2-6 discuss the divine judgment on worship of false gods. In a statement that sounds like the flood of Genesis, the Lord will sweep away everything: humans, animals, birds, and fish. Achtemeier says that we have here a radical picture of the wrath of God burning up a creation gone wrong. To refer to “sweeping clean” in this way, Watts suggests, offers a negative interpretation of the autumn harvest festival. The Lord will make the wicked stumble. The Lord will cut humanity from the earth. The Lord will stretch out a hand against Judah and Jerusalem. The Lord will cut off every remnant of Baal and idolatrous priests and those who bow to the hosts of heaven on their housetops, who swear or make an oath as part of their worship to the Lord, but also to Milcom, the astral deity of Ammon. The priests broke the first commandment. Such persons do not follow, seek, or inquire of the Lord. Achtemeier says the sins listed are idolatry, syncretism, and indifference toward God. She says the reigns of Mannasseh and Amnon have taken their toll. The problem for the prophet is that Judeans saw no harm in this. The Lord was just another god. Such an opening seems to move against the promise contained in the conclusion of the flood story in Genesis.

the Lord said in his heart, "I will never again curse the ground because of humankind, for the inclination of the human heart is evil from youth; nor will I ever again destroy every living creature as I have done. Genesis 8:21

In Zephaniah 1:7-9, the prophet addresses courtiers. The prophet urges people to be silent, for the day of the Lord is at hand. The lord has prepared a sacrifice and has consecrated the guests. Watts says this language is that of a holy war in which God participates in the battle. On the day of the sacrifice of the Lord, the Lord will punish officials, the sons of the king and all who dress in foreign attire. Achtemeier says it refers to the sacrifice one offered before going into battle. The Lord will punish all who leap over the threshold, which Watts says refers to the elevated platform on which the inner temple building was built. The sin, to him, is climbing up to the holy of holies. The Lord will punish those who fill the house of the master with violence and fraud. Achtemeier wants to stress the reasons for the judgment of God on Judah, for they accepted Assyrian ways, including idolatry, and left the demands of the covenant. She believes, however, that they had to compromise at some level.

Zephaniah 1:10-11 is an oracle against the merchants of Jerusalem. Watts says the form of this oracle is that of a lament.  On that day, one will hear a cry from the Fish Gate, a wail from the Second Quarter, and a loud crash from the hills. Watts says the places may be at the north side from which an attack would come. The inhabitants of the Mortar wail, for traders have perished. The Lord cuts off all who weigh silver. Watts thinks it refers to merchants who have profited from the sale of cult objects.

Zephaniah 1:12-13 is an oracle against unbelievers. “At that time” the Lord will search Jerusalem with lamps and punish people who rest complacently on their dregs, a reference to drunkenness, and say in their hearts that the Lord not do good or harm, a reference to unbelief. Achtemeier says the proverb here reveals that the people of Jerusalem no longer believe God is governor of the world. The Day of the lord will reveal who really rules the earth. Pannenberg^[1] notes that to perceive the acts of preservation and judgment from God in history, we simply need a readiness to reckon concretely with God as the Lord of history, in distinction from those who with a false security say mockingly that God does neither good nor evil. The Lord will plunder their wealth and lay waste their homes. They will build houses, but not inhabit them. They will plant vineyards, but they shall not drink the wine from them. We find a similar punishment in Deuteronomy.

You shall build a house, but not live in it. You shall plant a vineyard, but not enjoy its fruit. (Deuteronomy 28:30)

You shall plant vineyards and dress them, but you shall neither drink the wine nor gather the grapes, for the worm shall eat them. (Deuteronomy 28:39)

Achtemeier points out that judgment will begin at the commercial center of Jerusalem.

            Zephaniah 1:14-18 is an oracle concerning the Day of the Lord. Watts stresses that the day is one of battle and the appearance of the Lord on the battlefield decides the outcome. Achtemeier stresses that the prophet begins with a holy war by God against the people. The great day is near, the sound is bitter. It will be a day of wrath, distress, anguish, rain, devastation, darkness, gloom, clouds, thick darkness, trumpet blast, and battle cry against fortified cities. Achtemeier will say that the darkness is symbolic of the overwhelming presence of God, even as at Sinai. Now, however, the purpose is judgment. No defense will be adequate. The Lord will bring such distress upon people that they shall walk like the blind. The reason is that they have sinned against the Lord. The Lord will pour out their blood like dust and their flesh like dung. Neither silver nor gold will save them on the day of the wrath of the Lord. The fire of the passion of the Lord will consume the earth, for the inhabitants of the earth will have a full, terrible end. Achtemeier wants to stress that  the sin the Lord is attacking is to live life without God.

            Zephaniah 2:1-3 is a conclusion to the first segment, a call to conversion. Before the day comes, the prophet offers a call to repent. The call is to gather a shameless nation. Achtemeier says the prophet is calling for a public assembly of prayer and fasting. The call is emphatic. The assembly must come before the Lord drives them away like the drifting chaff, before the fierce anger of the Lord comes upon them, and before the day of the wrath of the Lord comes. The call is for the humble of the land to seek the Lord, that is, those dependent upon the Lord. The call is for those who do the commands, seek righteousness, and seek humility. Achtemeier stresses that such people will fulfill the covenant relationship. If they do, the Lord might hide them from the day of the wrath of the Lord. Watts stresses that the proper response to the announcement of doom is not to flee, but to turn to God. Yet, the prophet offers only the possibility of protection through conversion, but not a promise of it. Achtemeier says people are not judging their actions in the light of the will of God.

            Zephaniah 2:4-15 is the third segment, given in 636-626, having the theme of oracles against the nations. Achtemeier says the reason for the judgment in these oracles is pride. She notes that usually in the Old Testament, the nations come to Jerusalem.

            Zephaniah 4-7 are against Philistia. This country was along the coast to the west of Jerusalem. Some of the earliest battles of the Israelites were against them, as we see in Numbers 21-24. The prophet declares that Gaza and Ashkelon shall experience desolation, the people of Ashdod and Ekron uprooted. The word of the Lord is against the land of the Philistines, destroying them. The Lord shall destroy the inhabitants of the seacoast. The seacoast shall become home for a remnant or the survivors from the house of Judah.

            Zephaniah 8-11 are against Moab and Ammon. These countries are east of Jordan. The Lord has heard the taunts from Moab and Ammon. They shall become like Sodom and Gomorrah, a land of nettles and salt pits, a wasteland forever. The remnant of Judah shall plunder them. Their pride caused them to boast against the people of the Lord of hosts. The Lord will be terrible against them and their gods shall shrivel. Each of the nations shall bow to the Lord. Watts says the point here is that after the day of the Lord survivors will continue. The plundering suggests the people of God will participate in the fruits of victory. The Lord will restore the fortunes of Judah. The nations are against the Lord because they are against Israel. Achtemeier thinks the point of the remnant and survivors is that the meek shall inherit the earth.

            Zephaniah 2:12 is against Ethiopia. The sword shall kill this nation. Watts says that in 663 Assyria ended the rule of Ethiopia in Egypt. He thinks of this as recent history for Zephaniah.

            Zephaniah 2:13-15 is against Assyria. The judgment of the nations turns north. The Lord will stretch out a hand against Assyria and make Nineveh desolate. It will become like a desert. Herds, wild animal, the desert owl, the screech owl, the raven, all shall make their home there. “Is this the exultant city that lived secure, that said to itself, ‘I am, and there is no one else?’” Watts will stress that arrogance is the reason for judgment. We see similar phrasing of this type of pride in a later reflection by another prophet.

Now therefore hear this, you lover of pleasures,

who sit securely, who say in your heart,

"I am, and there is no one besides me;

I shall not sit as a widow or know the loss of children" (Isaiah 47:8)

You felt secure in your wickedness;

you said, "No one sees me."

Your wisdom and your knowledge led you astray,

and you said in your heart, "I am, and there is no one besides me." (Isaiah 47:10)

Yet, it has become a home for wild animals. People who pass by will hiss and shake their fists at it. The city was destroyed in 612. Achtemeier stresses here that no God can let this sin go unpunished.

            The fourth section is Zephaniah 3:1-8, oracles against Jerusalem and Judah, proclaimed in 612-609. In essence, Judah becomes part of the nations deserving of judgment from the Lord. Amos 2 follows a similar pattern. For Achtemeier, it has become clear that the reform initiated by Josiah and symbolized by the Deuteronomic Historian, will not bear fruit. She also sees many parallels with Jeremiah, suggesting common rhetoric among those who supported reform. In contrast, however, 3:1-4 has a structural relationship to 2:15, reminding Judah that it will not escape judgment. Verses 1-5 are against Jerusalem. One can find similar words about Jerusalem in Isaiah 1:21-23, offered around 733-727. The prophet pronounces a “woe” upon a soiled, defiled oppressing city. It has listened to no voice and accepted no correction. It has not trusted in the Lord. It has not drawn near to God. Watts stresses that because the city had no strong connection to the Lord moral chaos, oppression, and false religion are the result. Officials are roaring lions and wolves, Watts saying this means that leaders looked upon the people as objects of prey. Its prophets are reckless and faithless. Its priests profane the sacred and done violence to the law. Jeremiah 8:10, a prophecy from around the same years, offers a similar condemnation. Of course, Watts points out, priests were to take care of sacred objects and instruct in the Torah. They did neither. The Lord within it is righteous. The Lord does no wrong. The Lord renders judgment each morning, but the unjust knows no shame. The Lord has cut off nations. The Lord has laid them waste and made them desolate. They have no inhabitants. The Lord said, “Surely the city will fear me, it will accept correction, it will not lose sight of all that I have brought upon it.” Judah resisted this “wish” of the Lord. Yet, they increased their corruption. Therefore, wait for the day the Lord arises as a witness. Achtemeier will stress that Judah had the witness of prophets, covenant law, the consistence of nature, and the judgment of the nations. Yet, Judah rejects the witnesses. The decision of the Lord is to gather nations and pour out indignation and “all the heat” of the anger of the Lord, “for in the fire of my passion” the Lord shall consume the earth. We find here the universal judgment of the Lord. The fall of great empires is the action of God.

            The fifth section is Zephaniah 3:9-18a, with the theme of promises. Verses 9-10 focus on the nations. Watts observes that we see here the prophetic pattern of judgment preceding the merciful action of God. He will say that the change is abrupt. The Lord will change the speech of the peoples so that they will call upon the Lord and serve the Lord “with one accord.” We find here that the new act of salvation from God will reverse what happened at the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11:1-9 (J, 900s). Because of that connection, it also connects with Acts 2 and the birth of the church. It refers to a common language and a common labor. The scattered ones who belong to the Lord will bring an offering from beyond the rivers of Ethiopia, suggesting the limits of the world as the prophet knew them. Watts points out the reference to the scattered ones of the Lord could refer to the scattered peoples of the earth. He says that we have here the reign of God on earth becoming a reality. Achtemeier will stress that the prophet moves to the transforming action of God to create a new people. The word of God has the goal of life, not death. Verses 11-13 refer to the humble remnant of Israel. On that day, Judah shall not have shame because of their rebellion against the Lord and their lack of repentance, for the Lord will remove the pride that led to judgment. The Lord will leave among them a humble and lowly people who shall seek refuge in the name of the Lord. This will be the remnant of Israel. Watts will stress that the Lord had long been forming a people, and will finally become reality from among the poor and helpless. They take refuge in the only they could at this point. They shall do no wrong, not lie, and not deceive. Further, “they will pasture and lie down, and no one shall make them afraid.” Given the universal vision just presented, Israel can be whole. Watts stresses that we have here the peace given to those who survive the holocaust described in the previous segments. Achtemeier says the people will have a new character. The prophets say a close connection between what one worshiped and what one did ethically. New character will arise because of faithful living within the community.

            Zephaniah 3:14-18a is a psalm of joy in Zion. The daughter Zion (also called Israel and Jerusalem) is to sing and shout, rejoicing with all its heart. “Daughter Zion” is a sign of the affection with which the prophet thinks of Jerusalem. Singing was integral worship in Israel as well as its normal life. Singing was largely reserved for joyful occasions, while laments were for mourning, as we saw earlier in the book with the call to wail or cry. The Lord has taken away the judgments against them and turned their enemies away. Significantly, the king of Israel, the Lord, is in their midst, so they shall fear disaster no more. A debased monarchy remained a favorite object of prophetic denunciation. From the prophetic perspective, Israel abandoned its true king, The statement also reflects the theology of Jerusalem’s ultimate inviolability, which developed from the temple theology that emerged soon after the Israelite settlement in Canaan. Because the Ark of the Covenant resided in the temple in Jerusalem (having been brought there from Shiloh by David), the temple was understood to be the earthly dwelling place of Israel’s patron deity, whose dwelling could never be destroyed by enemies. With the destruction first of Shiloh and later of Jerusalem, this theology was undermined at the literal level (see, e.g., Jeremiah 7:12, 14; 26:6), forcing a recasting of it in eschatological terms. On that day, the Lord will say to Jerusalem not to fear or let their hands grow weak. The Lord is the warrior in their midst who gives them victory. The Lord will rejoice over them with gladness and renew them in love. The Lord will exult over them with the singing as on a day of a festival. God dwells as king among them. That has been question throughout this prophecy. Who will rule the life of Judah? The King of the universe is the King of love, whose will is to save.  The pictures of that day are interesting: The people are having a carnival.  God is present celebrating as well, a shepherd calling out to friends and neighbors that the lost sheep have been recovered.

Zephaniah 3:18-20 is a brief addition to this prophet from this period, reflecting common themes of prophetic eschatology. It seems based on the prophecies of III Isaiah. The promise is that the Lord will remove disaster from Judah so that they will not bear reproach for it. Some think that this could refer to the apostates in 1:5-6. The Lord will deal with all their oppressors at that time, referring to the final defeat of their enemies. In referring to the exiles, this addition says that the Lord will save the lame and gather the outcast. The Lord will change shame into praise and renown in all the earth. At that time, the Lord will bring them home, gather them, and make them renowned and praised among the peoples of the earth. The Lord will restore their fortunes before their eyes. If this passage is part of Zephaniah, it could refer to those of the Assyrian exile. The prophet refers to the restoration of a secure and bountiful homeland and the exaltation of Israel among the nations. The scattered people will see the victory of God and participate in it. This beatific vision of the end of the present world will persist in remarkably intact form, through the rest of the Jewish and Christian canons and even into contemporary theology. The notion of the homeland in this passage will become the wellspring of the anguished politics of the modern Middle East.

(5) Nahum (614-612, 3 Chapters)

Nahum and the Philosophical Context

            Nahum (a name meaning “comfort”) prophesied in 612, proclaiming the downfall of Nineveh, and the first prophet inspired by its fall. Watts says the last of the great Assyrian emperors died in 626. The enemies of Assyria formed against it in 614. According to Achtemeier, Nineveh fell in August of 612. He offers an oracle against Assyria in a way that Klaus Koch says is more passionate than that of Zephaniah. He offers an interpretation of these events. As Watts sees it, the decline of Assyria allowed Josiah to carry out his reforms. Von Rad says the book has no oracle against Judah because the reforms by Josiah were ongoing. Koch will say that the king of Assyria is the embodiment of wickedness in Nahum. He captures the mood of joy and satisfaction at this manifestation of the Lord as the avenger of wrong. He expresses a belief in the future of Judah as filled with promise. It appears that the reforms instituted by Josiah were the reasons for this hopefulness. Of course, the joy would have a short life, for in 609, Pharaoh Necho will defeat and kill Josiah. Egypt will dominate the country until 605, when it will experience defeat by the Babylonians. Within the prophetic tradition, one sees some tension regarding Assyria, for Jonah will have a quite different perspective than that which Nahum presents here. Simon J. DeVires[2] thought the liturgy in Jerusalem for the short period of 612-609 as a likely use of the book, especially given some hymn additions to the book. He also thought Nahum was a Yahwist and nationalist. He might have some knowledge of Isaiah in 10:12-13 in that Assyria had limits to its power.  Achtemeier notes that lectionary readings do not come from this book, suggesting that people read it as a nationalistic and vengeful work. Yet, she also notes the language is powerful. For her, the book is about God, not human beings. She opines that God is more forgiving of Assyria than pictured here, referring to Jonah as an example. The combination of Scythian, Medes, and Babylonians brought the defeat of Nineveh.

            The first segment, Nahum 1:1, is the title. It describes itself as an oracle that arises from the vision given to Nahum of Elkosh, a place otherwise unknown.

            The second segment, Nahum 1:2-15, has the theme of the anger of the Lord against Nineveh. The point is the Lord will eliminate all that is harmful, with this poem reflecting that faith. The Lord is jealous, avenging, and wrathful, taking vengeance on adversaries. God will not tolerate opposition. Achtemeier thinks of God as jealous as creating a people of God. She will also opine that if God does not destroy the evil of human beings, then the world will never experience the wholeness God intended. She also stresses that God, and not human vengeance, will destroy wrong. “The Lord is slow to anger but great in power, and the Lord will be no means clear the guilty.” We find here another expression of the goodness of the Lord, illustrated the long period in which Assyria ruled. Achtemeier notes that Assyrian documents betray great pride. Her point is that God gives people time to turn their lives. However, the patience of the Lord is due to lack of divine power. Yet, as she points out, while God forgives, the wrath of God is another option. Since God will not clear the guilty, God will destroy Assyria. The way of the Lord is that of whirlwind and storm. The Lord dries up the sea and rivers, the Lord taking up action against the seas. We should note that the seas were also a powerful symbol of evil and chaos. The Lord reduces its power. Bashan, Carmel, and Lebanon wither. Mountains quake, hills melt, and the earth heaves, “the world and all who live in it.” Who can stand before the indignation and anger of the Lord. The anger of the Lord pours out like fire and breaks the rocks. “The Lord is good, a stronghold in a day of trouble.” The Lord protects those who take refuge in the Lord, even in a flood. The Lord will bring adversaries to an end. He wonders why they plot against the Lord, for the Lord will make an end of them. Enemies become entangled and drunk, consumed like dry straw. Yet, one has gone out who plots evil against the Lord and counsels wickedness.

5 Ah, Assyria, the rod of my anger—

 the club in their hands is my fury! 

6 Against a godless nation I send him,

and against the people of my wrath I command him,

to take spoil and seize plunder,

and to tread them down like the mire of the streets. (Isaiah 10:5-6)

13 For he says:

"By the strength of my hand I have done it,

and by my wisdom, for I have understanding;

I have removed the boundaries of peoples,

and have plundered their treasures;

like a bull I have brought down those who sat on thrones. 

14 My hand has found, like a nest, the wealth of the peoples;

and as one gathers eggs that have been forsaken,

so I have gathered all the earth;

and there was none that moved a wing,

or opened its mouth, or chirped." 

15 Shall the ax vaunt itself over the one who wields it,

or the saw magnify itself against the one who handles it?

As if a rod should raise the one who lifts it up,

or as if a staff should lift the one who is not wood! (Isaiah 10:13-15)

18 Do not let Hezekiah mislead you by saying, The Lord will save us. Has any of the gods of the nations saved their land out of the hand of the king of Assyria?  19 Where are the gods of Hamath and Arpad? Where are the gods of Sepharvaim? Have they delivered Samaria out of my hand?  20 Who among all the gods of these countries have saved their countries out of my hand, that the Lord should save Jerusalem out of my hand?' " (Isaiah 36:18-20)

Yet, the Lord says that though they are at full strength and numerous, the Lord will cut them off. Given the destruction of such evil, Nahum offers an urgent call to Judah to repent today. Though the Lord has afflicted Judah, the Lord will afflict no more. Now, the Lord will break of the yoke from Judah. The Lord will not perpetuate its name any longer, making their grave, for they are worthless. “Look! On the mountains the feet of on who brings good tidings, who proclaims peace!” Watts refers to the joyful expectation that the good news is coming soon over the roads. The Lord wants Judah to celebrate its festivals and fulfill their vows, for never again will he wicked invade them.

            The third segment, Nahum 2:1-13, has the theme that Nineveh is to fall. It describes the concluding battle. Achtemeier contrasts Judah of 1:12-15 and Assyria in Chapter 2. Diodorus (21 BC) says there was an ancient prophecy that the city would not be taken unless the river became its enemy.  That happened as the Euphrates flooded the city and took down its walls. One who shatters has come against the city. They are to watch ramparts and roads and gird loins. They are to collect their strength. As an aside, the Lord is restoring the majesty of Jacob and Israel, even though ravagers have come. The shields of the warriors are red and the soldiers clothed in crimson. He refers to chariots and prancing chargers. The chariots race through the streets. “He calls his officers; they stumble as they come forward.” Watts says this may refer to over-eagerness of the attack. They come to the wall. The river gates open and the palace trembles. Watts says the description of the battle may be accurate. The outer defenses fall and the struggle continues in the alleys. It may suggest the indirect attack of flooding waters in the city. Exile has come upon the city by divine decree. The captors will carry slave women away. Nineveh, the first mention of the city, is like a pool whose waters run away. Here is the goal of the assault. The call is to plunder the silver, gold, and plunder. Devastation and destruction have come. Watts stresses its power and glory are gone. Hearts faint and knees tremble. What became of the den of the lion? The lion has torn enough, filling caves with prey. The Lord of hosts against Assyria and will burn their chariots, the sword devouring their young lions. The Lord will cut off their prey from the earth and no one shall hear the voice of messengers no more.  The hold Assyria had on the area is over.

            The fourth segment, Nahum 3:1-19, has the theme of a woe to Nineveh. Throughout the passage the female reference to the city dominates, possibly because the goddess Ishtar was the patron of the city. She had sacred prostitutes. The city is full of bloodshed, deceit, and plunder. Clearly, Watts says, the city deserves the punishment she receives. He refers to the crack of whip, the rumble of wheel, the galloping horse, and bounding chariot. He refers to horsemen charging with the flashing sword and spear. He refers to piles of dead without end, to the point of stumbling over the bodies. He refers to the countless debaucheries of the prostitute, who was alluring, a mistress of sorcery, one who enslaves nations. The Lord is against the city, and the Lord will lift up its skirts over the face. The Lord will let the nations look upon the nakedness of the city. Watts stresses that the city tempted all who came into contact with her. The Lord will throw filth at it, and treat it with contempt. All who see the city will shrink from the city, “Nineveh is devastated; who will bemoan here?” Who shall give comfort?  No one will express sympathy. The prophet now goes on to the lesson of Thebes, which Assyria defeated in 663 BC. Is the city better than Thebes? He refers to Ethiopia, Egypt, Put, and Libya as being helpers of Thebes. Yet, she went into captivity, its infants dashed in pieces. Achtemeier refers to Pritchard, p. 295 for a description of the defeat of Thebes. The point is that human might is nothing before the wrath of God. Nineveh relies on its own power. The enemy bound its dignitaries. Next, the prophet makes it clear that any preparations by Nineveh will be useless. The strength of the city has become its weakness. “You will also be drunken,” and go into hiding, seeking refuge from the enemy. Fortresses are like fig trees, if shaken, they all into the mouth of the eater. The troops are like women. The gates of the land are open to their foes. Fire has devoured the bars of the gates. Draw water for the siege and strengthen the forts. Trample the clay, tread the mortar, and take hold of the brick mold. The fire will devour the city; the sword will cut it off. The prophet compares Assyria to burned up locusts. Thus, the fire will devour them like the locust. They increased their merchants. The locust sheds its skin and flies away. Their guards are like grasshoppers and scribes like swarms of locusts settling on the fences on a cold day. When the sun raises, they fly away. The prophet now turns to lament. No one knows where they have gone. The shepherds are asleep, “O king of Assyria,” and nobles slumber. The people scatter on the mountains with no one to gather them. Achtemeier says Nahum likes to dwell on the worldly possessions of Assyria. There is no assuaging your hurt, for the wound is mortal. All who hear the news about you clap their hands. For who has ever escaped your endless cruelty? Achtemeier quotes: “Free at last, free at last. Thank God Almighty. Free at least!” Her point is that celebration over the defeat of evil is legitimate. She wants the faithful to ask if they have participated in such corruption. Further, she will stress that this little book is a celebration of divine action.

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[1] Systematic Theology, Volume 3, 498.

[2] (Interpreter’s Bible)